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R and A Noo E179 


EDUCATION IN FRANCS 


Deaorlption 

A study of the organization, administration, and 
ourrloula of the French educational system under 
the Third Republic, and the changes introduced 
by the Ylohy Government, with reference to the 
direction of post-liberation reformso 


18 Aiagust 1944 


This docxament contains Information affecting the national 
defense of the United States within the meaning of the 
Espionage Act, 50 USC 31 and 32, as amended^ Its trans¬ 
mission or the revelation of Ita contents In any manner 
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by laWo 


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CONFIDEI-JTXAL 





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TABLE OF COHCTTS 



Summary ^ „ 




CONFIDEICTIA L 


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I« Introduction: Historiceil Background of the 

French Educational System, .... 1 


IIo Organization of Education under the Third Republic., f 

Ao Central Administration..... 5 

1, Centralized Control.. 5 

2, Geographic Organization. 5 

3, Private Schools.. 6 

B. Institutions...,.. 6 

1. Nursery Schools... 7 

2. Primary Schools................ .. 7 

3. Post-primary Course s...... ^. 8 

4. i^condary Schools......... 8 

5. Normal Schools... 9 

6. Higher Institutions,.. 9 

7. Technical Schools......... 10 

C, Teachers...,. . 10 

1. Appointment. 10 

2. Qualifications....... 11 

He Curricula. .12 

1. Elementary Courses... 12 

2. Secondary Courses. 12 

3. The Baccalaur^at .. 13 

E. Reforms under the Third Republic. 13 

1. Democratic Reforms. 14 

2. Reforms toward Practical Education,........... 15 


III. Changes under the Vichy Reg^jjie 


A. Administrative Control. 16 

Be Emphasis on Vocational Education.... 16 

C. Curricula. 17 

1. Elementary Courses*...... 17 

2. Secondary Courses...... 17 

3. ’•General Education” and SportSc.... 18 

4. Religious Instruction.... ........1,. 18 

5. Anti-Semitism...,.,,,.....,. 19 


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lo Training, .......19 

2 . Appointmen t .. ..... 20 

3, Persecution, .II, 20 

4c Hesistance* ., 20 


IV. Effects of the War on the Schools... 


A. Destruction of Facilities........ 


B* Counterraeasures, e.. 


1 * Roliefc *c. *.. oa *..... PI 

S. Discipline........ ae 


V, Conclusion: Post-Liberation Pi'oblems*........ 24 


Vr. Appendix: Youth Orcanizations.. 


Ao Organizations under the Third Republic* *, 

' Bo Organizations under Vichy........ 

1 * General Police..... 


2 . 

Leadershin Training,... 


3c 

Chantiers de la Jeun^s^___ ......... 


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GomToasnons de France. .. 


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Religious Organisations...... 

Political Groups,.........____ 


7o 

Student Associations.. .... 


80 

Forces Hales de la Jeunesse........... 



iii 


C0I?FID3iJTI/L 

































COHPIDENTIi\L 


Summary 

lo The educational system of France under the Third 
Republic was highly centralized under state control of 
administration, teaching methods,and curricula, Prlyate 
Instltutione had a limited autonomy but were subject to 
government inspection and regulations. 

2, Schools and curricula were organized in a prlinaJT’ 
school system, often supplemented by vocational training, 
designed for working class students; and a secondary school 
system for students preparing for the universities. Because 
working class students usually could not afford prolonged 
education, most of the higher professional and administrative 
posts of France which required university degrees were occupied 
by members of the well-to-do classes. 

3. The academic standard of French schools was high 
and competition was intense, especially throughout the 
secondary system. The traditional aim of French education 
has been to cultivate independence and Integrity of thought • 
and to produce an intellectual and governmental elite. 

Classical subjects were stressed, often at the expense of 
practical learning. Although scientific subjects gradually 
gained more prominence, the integration of classical and 
practical subjects remained an unsolved problem. 

4o The changes introduced by the Vichy CJovernment 
have been toward more practical and physical training at 
the expense of classical education. As in Germany, the 

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CONFIDMTIAL 

acquiring of broad knov/ledge and the practice of independent 
thinking have been discouraged. 

5. After the liberation it may be expected that 
restrictions imposed by the Vichy Government will be 
eliminated and thiat refoms will be instituted to solve the 
educational problems Inherited from the Third Republic as 
well as those arising directly from the war. 

6. (See Appendix.) Youth organizations have played 
an important role In France, Under the Third Republic they 
supplemented fdrmal e<iucatlon, which afforded little 
recreation. Under Vichy youth groups have been organized 
along nilitaristlc lines similar to National Socialist groups. 




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COMFXDEtJTIAJj 


. EDUCATIOM IM FRAllCE 

.1. mmPUCTIOH; HISTORICAL BACKQROUMD OP THE FHEHCH 

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

The educational syatem of France during the Third 
Republic was thoroughly centralized under the state» Govern¬ 
ment control of administration, curricula^and teaching methods 
followed a long struggle between the state and the Catholic 
Church over influence in education. In pre-Revolutionary 
France all education had been directed by the Church, but 
with the Constitution of 1791 and the Napoleonic reforms, 
the state began to assume control through a policy of 
cooperation with the Church. After 1808 French secondary . 
and higher education were nationalized by the establisiiment 
of the Imperial bniversity ( Univereite de B'rance ) which 
controlled courses and the appointment of teachers. Thg ^ 
term ‘•university” referred to the whole hierarchy of the 
public education system rather than to one type of institution 
Although private secondary eet^ablishinents existed and were 
often ^directed by religious congregations, they were subject 
^to inspection by University authorities. 

Subsequent laws increased the freedom of the Church 
in education^ but the state remained dominant. The Guizot 
reforms of 1853 completed the Imperial University system 
by the establishment of public primary schools, but also 
sanctioned corresponding private schools undei* clerical 

- 1 " CONFIDEHTIAi 










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C01JFIDEMTIi\L 


dlrectioiie The Church gained another victory with the Falloux 
Law of 1850 which permitted clerical teaching in secondary 
schools provided candidates held ecclesiastical credentials 
equivalent to the state certiflcatec Finally in 1875 establish¬ 
ment of Catholic universities was permitted, and until 1880 
clerical faculties and state authorities shared the right to 
grant university degrees. 

Under the Third Republic the conflict between the 
Church and the state cane to a head, for the Influence of the 
Church In education was curbed by a new policy of seculariza¬ 
tion and neutrality. During this period the Church supported 
conservative political elements as against the Republicans 
who threatened its authority. As a result, supporters of the 
Republic imposed new limitations on the Church in the field 
of education. In 1880 the Jesuit schools, an Important factor 
in French education since the sixteenth century, were abolished. 
The establishment of free compulsory elementary schooling by 
Jules Ferry in 1381 further extended secular instruction. 

After 1896, when the Radical-Socialist Ferdinand Bulsson 
became director of public instruction, the Church again 
lost influence in education. At that time the universities 
of France were reorganized into the state-supervised system 
which exists today. Finally, from 1901 to 1905 a series of 
laws abolished all teaching by religious orders and limited 
the staffs of Catholic schools to instructors authorized by 


CONFIDENTIAL 




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CONFIDENTIAL 


the state* In spite of these laws a number of religious 
schools maintained themselves and constitute the majority 
of French private schools today. 

During the 1920*8 the political struggle between Church 
and state over education was re seed in the program of the 
Leftist parties which rose to power in 1924. They proposed 
the eBtablishment of the ecole unique , a foundation school 
for children from all social classes. 

As compulsory elementary education v/as extended the 
Influence of state elementary school teachers was also extended, 
especially in provincial regions and small towns. These 
teachers manifested strong Hepublioan tendencies and became 
a powerful force in shaping the political and social 
attitudes of the country. They were largely responsible for 
the Leftist tendencies and the anti-clericel-ism prevailing 
in many provincial districts, as well as for preserving 
unity of belief in the democratic ideals of the Republic. 

They were also largely responsible for the widespread taste 
for academic learning and respect for Intellectual achievement 
characteristic of the French people; these traits found further 
expression in high scholastic standards, the competitive 
spirit in education, love of freedom and in the Integrity 
of thought prevailing under the Third Republic. 

Against this background, the changes' in the educational 

C0NFIDENrT.4L 






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CONFIDENTI^lL 


system made by the Vichy Cxovernment stand out in contrast to 
the principles adhered to under the Third Republic, These 
changes iiave effected no improvement in the educational 
system as a whole, but instead have been designed to establish 
in France a limited practical training similar to the National 
Socialist system of Germany* 


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II. ORaANiZATIQN OF EDUCATION UNDHH THE THIRD RERJBLXO 
A. Central Admlnlatr ation 

Notable features of school and univeraity adm.ln5.stra¬ 
tion under the Third Republic were? 1) a decooratio system 
of representation of teaohers and the public on the main 
. advisory bodies determining eduoational policy, and 2) cen¬ 
tralization of all institutions under state oontx»olc 

Centralized Control . Administrative cffioienoy and 
uniform educsition of French youth were ensux ad by state 
controls. The lliiiistry of National Bduoaticn conducted 
the central radminl strati on, with the aesisttnce of two' 
advisoi'y bodies* the Consultatlve COiuiiiittee of Public 
‘education h.ufujled pc;..30raiol ouesth nD; aad t'.e 
Council of Public Instruction dealt v;ith pioblei;.s of 
aupco.v^lsion and teaching methods* All types of educational 
institutions elected ropiesontfitives to the iicher Council. 
Contact \;ith schools was maintained by the c^ntxal adniniatiation 
thioun.h In spec tors-general, responsible direotly to tho 
Linistiy of Nationai j.ducation, and thiouf?ii 'j)iir,uaj.y schooj. 
inspectons' responsible to the? ri'*her Council of Public 
Xnstiaction. The state also ussux.ied most of the financial 
burden for coriuiunal schools, thus ensuring, ci-eater Centralization 
2. Qeo[?raphio Organization . In 1^54 Fi-aace was divided 
into 16 aOad^mi ai (17 lacluciing Algiers) or eduoational 
districts. In each eduoational dieti’ict till school e above 


JONI^IDKNTIAL 















6 - 


QO NFXDEIfPIAL 


elementary level were under the authority of a Rector, 
who me responsible to the central govemaent and was usuany 
a regular professor of higher education. Ho ^as advised by 
the Academic Council and the University Council of his region, 
and assisted by an academy inspector for each department 
under hie rule. Direction of elementary schools was shared 
by the prefects and the departmental educational councils, 
which included elected teachers and public representatives, 
and supervised both appointments and maintenance of public 
and private schools. 

'3ehop ; y . Private Institutions could be founded 
with permission of the state, by French citizens who had the 
necessary age aiid teaching qualifications. Tt.ese establish¬ 
ments enjoyed some independence in determining educational 
policy, for they were represented on both the national and 
departeental educational councils, atate control was assured, 
however, by the supervision of the inspectors and the exclu¬ 
sive right of the state to give the examinations for itfilch 
curricula were designed and to grant all degrees. 

Inatitutions 

French schools were organized on three levels, primary, 
secondary, and university, comprising the hierarchy called the 
University of Prance (UniverslW ^ Emx&&). Che organization 

OOHFIDEMTIAT. 








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OOKFIDENCTA L 


Of state aohoolG was unique li that the elementary (or 
primary) and the secondary Institutions oonstituted t?ra 
distinct systems, each proTldlng a complete gramatj? eohoo!i. 

education for the student. ?rimai?y schools were attended 

/ 

by working class oMldren intending to earn a living after 
graduation; secondaa.'y schools were mainly for the middle and 
upper class ohiidren prcpairing for the universities and highei* 
professional soliools or foi* Jobs requiring seoond£?j*y eduoa--’ 
tlon. Although under the Third Repablio rural and working 
class students could and did obtain secondary and university 
education thrpugla state scholars.hlp 8 granted on the basis ot 
scholastic ability, most of them were restricted to primary 
schools for economic reasons* 

rne types of French schools under the Republic may 
be outlined as follows, with parallels drawn where possible 
to the American system, 

nursery Schools , Before entering primary school, 
children up to atx years of age could attend either the 

.j5flteynglles, nursery sohools established in the larger 
cities and industrial centers, or the pr 0 -*elementary grades 
of the primary sohools proper™ 

2o Primary Sohools» As in America, elementary school¬ 

ing was oompulsory for children from six to fourteen years 
of age. Since the Guizot reforms of IS 33 every commune in 

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France had at least one prlinary school or separate establlsli-^ 
meats for boys and girls (In some oases schools were shai’od 
by neighboring communes)« 

3» £Qst-prlma:^J3oui^^^^ Post-primary sohools ( ’^oole s 
:&riiaaire8 superieurea^ and complementary courses (oours 
^omplement.y^) were alternative institutions for supple¬ 
mentary academio or practical training after primary schools 
Entrance requirements were the certifioat d«etudes primalr ea 
obtained on completion of pidjnary courses and, for post- 
primary school, success in a conpetitive examination* These 
intermediate courses correspond rougiay to American continua¬ 
tion courses, for they were intended mainly to complete the 
child*s education if secondary school was not planned* In 
a few oases, however, they served as preparation for entrance 
to the colleges and lypees , the classical secondary schools* 

Q-Q^dary Schools* Ihe lyoees and colleges corresponded 
to American high schools in that they prepared for university 
education* After 1^90 secondary education was available to 
girls in separate institutions giving approximately the e^iae 

^ instruction as those for boys* The curricula of the lyoe es 

% ** 
and ppllegea were fundamentally the same, and both led up to 

the baooalaureat . the final examination required for entrance 

to the universities. However, the lyoees. established in the 

larger cities and supported by the state, generally had 

OOMFIDENglAl. 

















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better teachers than did the 



which were, usually 


established in smaller towns and were supported by the communes 
Both institutions had their own elementary grades for ein¬ 
dents from six to eleven years of age* ®iese differed from 
the prim.ary school grades in that they condensed elementary 
education into five years instead of six, for students pre-, 
paring for the seven years of upper secondary school* 

5- Normal BoJ.icols * Institutions for teacher training 
fell into three main categories* Primary normal schools 
( 80ole3 normales primaires) for men and for women existed 
in every department* Their instructors and teachers of the 
Copies primaires sup^rieui^es were trained in the higher 
primary normal schools (Eooles Normales Primaires Sup^- 
ieures ) of which there was one for men at Saint-Cloud and 
one for women at Fontenay-aux*Roses* Annexed to these were 
normal schools for teachers in commerce and industry* The 
higher normal schools ( Eooles Normales Sip^rieures ) at 
Paris for men and Sevres for women, trained teachers for 
B eoondary s chools * 

6 * Higher Institutions * In the field of higher educa¬ 
tion there were seventeen state universities including one 
at Algiers, and a niimber of similar private institutions, 
each with separate faculties for law, science, letters^and 
medicine* Supplementing , the ■universities were the Crand e 
Etablissements and the Grandee Kooles Specialises for 


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research and special advanced and professiosial study, and 
a number of Catholic and a fow Protestsuit establishments 
7® Technical Schools ^ Those who had-not talten secondary 
schooling were not eligible for higher education but might 
obtain vocational training in ppeclal state sohoole In com¬ 
merce and industry, agriculture, engineering, and various 
trades* After the first World War important steps were 
taken to build up these institutions and establish orienta¬ 
tion centers to assist young people in xnakirg their choice of 
trade* 

C* Teachers 

Under the Tliird Republic the selection and promo¬ 
tion of teachers were ultimately controlled by the state, 
but provision was made for participation of teachers and the 
piiblic in nomination of school and university instructors* 
Applio^mts for all teaching* positions were required to ful¬ 
fill high standards of ti*alnlng and ability* 

Appointment * Appolntmentj transfer, or promotion 
of elementary school teachers were supervised by the pre ¬ 
fects .In consultation with the departmental councils of 
education and v/ith the advice of the academy inspectors 
responsible to the central administration* The teaching 
personnel of secondary and Mgher Inatitutlone was 
appointed by the lUnlster of Eduoatlon with 

COMFIDEHTIAh 







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* 11 - 


UUXJFlDluIjT XAjL 


the adrlce of the Gonaultatlve Commltte.i on Publlo Education 
and a special periaanent section ulthin T,he Higher Council of 
Public Inetruotiono Instructors without.professorial titles 
were Bometimes chosen by the Rector with the advice of the 
university council concerned. But i»e8pcnsibillty for profes¬ 
sorial appointaents rested ultimately with the Minister of 
Education* Teachers and representatives of public and 
private institutions took part in handling personnel ques¬ 
tions through representatives on these administrative bodies* 
_Qualificationa * Appointment of teaching and adminis¬ 
trative personnel was governed by exacting competitive 
examinations.. Elementary school teachers were required to 
pass the competitix'e ex^lnatlon ( brevet suparicur ) follow¬ 
ing post-prinory school training, for entrance to the 
departriental normal schools which provided three years of 
training* For ly^ee and uni'^ersity professorship candidates 
were required to pass a dlfflotat competitive examination 
known as the apn^eigation * or to hold the doctorate* !!he 
requirement for oollsge instructors was less exacting; 
only a teaching license ( license "es let tree or ^ 

scienc eo) ^ roughly corresponding to the A. B* degree, 
from a university was necessary* 


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OQMFIDSNTBL 


Do Cuyrioula, 

Tlie purposes of eduqatlon under the Third Republic 
were to provide, on the one hand, practical instruction 
for those preparing mainly to earn a living, and on the other, 
a thorough acaderaic training for those aiming toward higiier 
education and the professions. 

Elementa.ry Oourses . Primaiy education gave children 
approximately the same fundamentals taught in American 
elementary schools, and faxiiliarlzed them with the prin« 
oiples of the government. The subject matter of the 
compulsory seven years of elementary school included **the 
three H’s,^ French grammar, French history and 'geography, 
general science, drawing, nuslo, physical education, and 
manual and moral training. 2he post-primary school program 
offered either more advanced viork in academic subjects or 
vocational courses in agriculture, manual arte, commeroe^ 
or homo economics for girls. 

2. Secondary Poursea . The traditional purpose of second¬ 
ary education in France v/as to give students a generally 
useful baohground of theoretical knowledge, based largely 
on study of classical subjects. Efforts were made, however, 
to integrate classical studies and practical training. 

Students in the lyc^s and ooll^ges could choose between a 
classical course or a parallel solentlfio course. 


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COIL^IDENTIAI 


. 13 « 

By 1935 soipe scientific training was compulsory for all 
'student 80 In the final year the student could specialize 
in either philosophy or mathenatlcso throughout the 
secondary curriculum a high academic stand^o*! was main¬ 
tained largely through frequent and rigorous examinations. 

3o The Baccalaureat .. The final examination of the 
eeeo.ndary school was typical of the high scholastic demands 
and competitive character of the French educational system. 
The first part of the hacceilaurlat was usually taken at 
about the age of seventeen;, the second part at eighteeno 
It called for earlier intellectual maturity the;n under the 
Ame7’ican system, for at an age when American students enter 
college, French students v/ere examined on Tiaterial given in 
the first tv-o years of college« 

^^ Reforms under the Third Republi c 

A fmidamental wealoiess of education under the ‘Phird 
Republic was recognized and became the object of reforms. 

The existence of primary and secondary schools as two 
separate systems tended to produce on the one hand a 
working class of limited education, and on the othei^ hand 
a learned elite with little practical training. Corse- 
quently the chief administrative and professional positions 
of France, for vihloh higher education was a prereqaisite, 
were usually occupied by members of the well-to-^do classes. 


CONFIDENTIAL 









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OONFIBENTXAL 


It was souG’ht, therefore, to Integrate the divergent types 
of education without sacrificing traditional academic stan¬ 
dards. 

1 * Democratic Reforgia ^ *1116 ^ole unique was the princi¬ 
pal proposal by which secondary education was to be extended 
to less privileged groups. It was to provide six years of 
elementary schooling for children of all social classes, 
giving ecjual opportunity to all for promotion to secondary 
school on the basis of merit alone. The plan contemplated 
a wide variety of courses to suit different aptitudes and 
vocational aims; coordination of primary, secondary and 
technical instruction; free secondary schooling, uniform 
teacher training through the universities rather than normal 
schools; and the establishment of a Ministry of National 
Education. 

Although the ecole tyiique was never fully realized, 
some progress was made toward achieving its alms. The 
Ministry of National Education replaced the old Ministry 
of Public Instruction and developed new vocational and 
technical schools. The primary classes in some secondary 
schools were merged with those of elementary schools. 

Uniform class and holiday schedules and standardized re¬ 
cruiting methods were introduced. By 1939 legislation to 
provide free education for qualified students through 

CONFIDENTIAL 












15 - 


CONFIDEMTIAL 


primary school and up to the baooalaurdat was in effect. 
Living expenses for needy students entering higher education 
were partially covered by state scholarships or outright 
grants. 

to ward l^rgctiogl Kduoation . In secondary 
schools a series of reforms dating from 1902 was made to 
Integrate classical stv.dies and practical training in 
order to keep education abreast of modem economic life. 

One of the first projects of the Ministry of National 
Education was the establishment of new tecl'inloal and voca¬ 
tional schools for students over fourteen, providing 
instruction of from three to six years. Vocational instruc¬ 
tion was made compulsory for industrial employees, and 
employers were encouraged to develop apprentice training. 


CONFIDENTIAL 









« 16 


C0Iv^^ID5I^Ii\L 


III. CH/ilTOES UNDER THE VICKY I-^GIME 
The changes since 1940 have increased state control over 
all phases of education, having as their aim the elimination ,of 
democratic methods* They have also introduced more emphasis on 
practical subjects at the expense of thorough intellectual training. 
A. Administrative Contr ol 

Although the administrative framework of the educational 
system has not been changed, participation, of teachers and the 
public in school and university administration has been eliminated. 
New inspectors appointed by Vichy have helped to remove anti-Vichy 
members of the school staffs, 

So Emphasis on Vocational Education 

In 1941 Vichy abolished the (gboles primal res sup^rie'ux*es . 

Since then students have been encouraged to proceed to technical 
training or apprenticeship, or to enter the secondary schools 
which Vichy has "modernized** by introducing additional practical 
courses* Secondary education is not easily available to most working 
class students, however, because the school fees v^ere reestablished 
in 1941 and the scholarships ( bourses nationales ) for qualified 
students have been inadequate. 

Efforts have been made to encourage vocational instructions, 
especially in agriculture. These measures have been hampered by the 
lack of qualified instructors and, in agriculture, by the.resistance • 
of farmers to a refoi^m designed to further German exploitation of 
the land, 


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COIiPlDENTlAL 


C, Curricula 

The Vichy Government has introduced curricular 
following the pattern set by the fascist governments of Germany 
and Italy. In addition to emphasis on practical subjects, every 
effort has been made to eliminate texts and teachers encouraging 
a critical attitude toward the Ilev/ Order. 

!• Elementary Courses . The primary schools, one of the 
most important moans of civic instruction under the Third 
Republic, have become a principal field for collaborationist 
indoctrination. 

2 . Secondary Courses . The academic standard of secondary 
schools has been considerably lov/ered. The lyc^ e has been made 
the only school offering Latin, advanced mathematiort, and 
philosophy, v/hile the college has emphasized practical courses. 

The baccalaureat has suffered a corresponding decline. Part of 
the examination has been eliminated; examiners and instructors 
are obliged to make concessions for students v;ho are not able 
to meet the former standard owing to undernourishment or other 
wartime conditions. With a decreased number of hours devoted 
to mathematics and classical.studies, students are inadequately 
prepared for the written part of the examination,which has not 
been fundamentally changed by Vichy. The baccalaureat has been 
widely regarded as a device for achieving professional advancement 
rather than a certificate of accomplishment and a key to 
higher education. 


CONFIDEKTIAL 















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3o ^General Education** and Sports . Soon after the new 
regime was established, a compulsory program of physical 
training and indoctrination known as “general education** was 
introduced in all schools and universities, under control of 
the new General Coniniissariat of Sports in the Ministry of 
Education, In imitation of the German method, "general 
education" involved a certain number of hours devoted to sports, 
marching, singing, and Vichy propaganda. Sports associations 
based on an "athlete’s oath" of self-improvement for community 
service, were also organized throughout the country on a local, 
regional, and national basis. 

The emphasis on physical culture has met v/ith opposition 
on the part of parents, students^ and teachers, because ^vddespread 
underncuris^iment has rendered the students incapable of 
strenuous exercise, and it is felt by many that intellectual 
education is being sacrified to muscular training and pro- 
Vichv propaganda. 

4, Religious Instruction , At first the Vichy policy on 
religious teaching completely reversed that of the Third 
Henublic.. In September 1940, when Chevalier was Minister 
of Education, the legislation of 1904 prohibiting teaching 
by members -5* religious congregations was abrogated. In 1941 

i 

Chevalier made religious teaching by lay instructors compulsory 
in elementary schools, a step which met vith strong opposition 
from the Church, In March 1941, Carcaplno, who succeeded 


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Chevalier, made religious instruction optional and decreed 
that it be given outside of the elementary schools <> V/hen 
Abel Bonnard became Minister of Education in 194£, "moral 
science" rather than religious teaching was emphasized. 

Finally, religious teaching largely gave place to methods of 
indoctrination, 

5o Anti - Semi t ism ,. The Vichy authorities have attempted to 
stimulate anti-Semitic feeling by seeking to establish a 
"scientific" basis for race discrimination, Special chairs in 
Jewish "history" and ethnogranhy have been created at the 
University of Paris and the College de France for the purpose 
of cultivating anti-Semitism throughout the educational system. 
Resistance to this campaign-is general among teachers and 
students, since the French people as a whole are not prejudiced 
against the Jev/s, 

Do Teachers 

lo Training , Vichy ^.bolished the primary normal aohools 
nartly because they were believed to produce overly-academic 
teachers but chiefly because they v/ere considered hotbeds 
of republicanism. They have been replaced by Institutes for 
Professional Formation, Primary school teachers have 

subsequently been qualified on receiving the baccalaur/at 

§ 

and ten months of the new training, follov/ed by a brief period 
of practice teaching, three months of specialization in 
agriculture, domestic science or technical subjects, and special 
training in "general education.’* The Ecoles .Normales Primaires 


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Superieures v;ere also abolished and replaced by two Ecoles 
Nationales Prenaratoires £ l^Enselgnement dans les Colleges , 
admitting candidates holding the baccalaure^at . 

Apoointraent o Appointment of teachers has been brought 
more directly londer ministerial control* In June 1940 the 
special permanent section of the Higher Council of Public 
Instruction was abolished; since then all university professors 
have been appointed by the Minister of Education from a list of 
candidates submitted by the university faculty concerned* 

Persecution * To eliminate political opposition, Jev/s, 
Frenchmen of foreign descent, and Freemasons have been excluded 
from the teaching profession and all those suspected of anti¬ 
collaborationist tendencies have been dismissed, subjected to the 
labor draft, or persecuted by other methods* Disciplinary 
measures have been especially severe toY/ard elementary school 
instructors because of their influence on public opinion* Yichy 
has also forbidden such unions as the National Union of 
Elementary School Teachers* 

4* Resistance o Inadequate salaries and disapproval of the 
Vichy policy have caused many teachers to resign^ but many have 
continued to give secret instruction according to. the standards 
of the Thlixl Republic» Some have formed clandestine syndicate 
and participated in sabotage. Important underground papers 
developed by former teachers have been the University Libre 
Laique which are widely circulated in France. 


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CQNyTpsNTlAL 


. gFFi^iCTS OF TBlil V^AH ON TH:s SCHOOLS 
Ac Destruction of Facilities 

The equipment of universities, laboratories, schools, 
and libraries throughout France hcis been greatly impaii'ed by 
the war,. In the schools, books and clothing are reduced 
to less than 25 percent of their pre-war quantity, and are 
available only if a coupon is presented for each iterrie The 

\ 

difficulty of publishing schoolbooks has given rise to a 
black market in them. 3ti7d3^ conditions are made difficult 
by the necessity of moving schoc].s frequently ':o safer areas, 
or of closing thorn altogether. Those which continue to operate 
have suffered from inadequate heating and poor sanitation. 

In higher institutions advanced work is made difficult if not 
impossible by the lack of research materials and laboratory 
equipmento 

In addition to the lack of facilities, widespread 
malnutrition has reduced the efficiency of students and teachers 
and the labor draft has seriously depleted both faculties and 
student bodies, 

B, Countermeasures 

1, Relief , The Red Cross, the National Assistance Service, 
and the Friends Service Committee have ameliorated the situation 
somewhat with medical care, distribution of extra food in the 
schools, and aid to evacuees. Children have been sent out of 
bombed areas to orivate families, to charitable institutions, 
or to other communal shcools v/hieh as a result have become 

CONI ' IDKI^TIA L 

















CQiiFIDKNTI'AL 


fim • - a2 - 

overci’ow^ed* ' Special Gorrespondence courses and radio 
urograms have been organized for those unable to attend cohool 
xio'vever, these measures are reported to have been unsucceasff.l 
since students in elementary grades, who constitute the most 
acute -oroblem, have not profited enough from unsupervised 
instruction. In addition, the shortage of food and medical 
ourplies has continued to prevent relief measures on an 
adefjfuate scale» 

^ With the v;artime disorganization of the 
educational system, Yichy found it necessary to introduce new 
discinlinary measures. Truancy has increased, often because 
of shortened class, periods which leave students idle for 
large carts of the day, or because parents disapproving of 
Vichy policy rei-use to allow their children to attend school. 

To discourage truancy the Vichy Government has made students 
found on the street during school hours subject to arrest, and 
on a repeated offense their parents are obliged to forfeit 
a share of their family allowances<, To guax'd against student 
uprisings in the universities, leaflets have been banned, 
mail has been strictly supervised, and demons t rut ions have been 
made punishable by expulsion, 

The attximuntal effect of these conditions on the 
students has been considerable. It has been stated that the 
generation growing up in France since 1939 will be a me.jor 
post-war problem as a result of wartime'privations and the ' • 


COHFIDFI^TIAL 








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demoralization caused by constant evacuations and interruptions 
of school schedules. An even p^reater problem vdll be to undo 
the harm caused by Vichy indoctrination. 




CONFIDENTIAL 







CONFID'SHTIAL 


V. COHCLUSIOM; P0ST-LI.3EHATI0H PROBLEMS 
The Inadeqiaacies of education under the Third Republic 
have not been relieved by the cimnges instituted under Vichy« 
Questions for consideration after the liberation will there¬ 
fore include problems inherited from the Third Republic as 
well as those provided by the war and Vichy policy- Some 
of these questions as seen by Resistance leaders and spokes¬ 
men in the Provisional Consultative Assembly, are the following: 
(1) the need for equality of opportunity in education for all 
students, which might be achieved by common foundation schools 
and iiigher administrative schools free from social discrimina¬ 
tion and discriminatory practices with respect to examinatio:.o 
and scholarships; (2) curricular changes to obtain a better 
balance of practical and academic subjects; (3) maintenance of 
high standards in health and i-velfare as they affect education; 
(4) rebuilding or restoration of educational facilities and 
equipment destroyed by the war; (5) removal of Vichy teaching 
methods, personnel, and textbooks; (6) re-education of teachers 
■and the re-establishmen-t of their x'ight to, participate in 
determining educational policies; (7) restoration of youth 
activities and the establishment of facilities to meet their 
needs and to reorient those vho have been indoctrinated with 
Vichy principles 9 


CONFIDENI^IAL 









CONFIDEirnAL 


- 25 - 

VI, APPENDIX; YOUTH ORGANIZATIONS 
>«■ Oa S^izatlons und e r the Third Republic 

Under the Third Republic youth organizations were 
an important extra-curricula part of the educational system. 

The three major scout organizations for boys, Eclaireurs de 
Francjg, Ecj^r eurs Unionistes de France , and Scouts de France , 
with similar organizations for girls, resembled American 
scout groups in their purpose and activities. The Auberges 
de la Jc unesse fl a youth hostel system, was also organized, 
mainly for the benefit of poorer townspeople. Youth groups, 
orgo,nized by vaMous political parties, were freely available 
to young men and women interested in politics. Both scout 
movements and political organizations provided for religious 
Interests. The Scouts de France were a Catholic group, 
the Eclaireure Unionistes were mainly Protestant, and there 
was also a epecial Jewish movement. The principal Catholic 
youth organizations, grouped within the Association Catholique 
de Jeunesse Francaise , v/ere primarily concerned with social 
welfare work and religious instruction of children, 

B, Organizations under Vichy 

1, General Policy . Vichy used youth movements to supplement 
the indoctrination received by French youth in the schools 
and to provide new sources of labor for Germany and agri¬ 
cultural France, The Vichy policy was, therefore, first, 
to tighten control of existing groups in order to prevent 


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CONFIDEl^TXAL 


anti-German opinion amone the young people; and secondly, 

new groups and oadrea for leadership training were created 

following the German model» The severe youth problem and 

unemployment in France after the Armistice were important 
% 

reasons for making full and inmedlate use of existing 
organizations, despite the lack of trained Vlchyite leader¬ 
ship « The former scout groups and eventually most of the 
nev youth movements were consequently placed under the 
Ministry of Education, ^diich controlled the separate 
organizations, through regional delegates,, T>ie Auberges de 
Jeunease ' were replaced in the South Zone by the Auberges 
de la Jeunesse and the Gamarades de la Route , 
made up largely of workers, students, and teachers', and at 
least outimrdly loyal to the Vichy Government6 

3, Leadex»shlp Training , The Ecole Natlonale des Cadres i> 
founded at Uriage In 1940 for the training of youth leaders, 
became the model for regional schools established later 
throughout the south zonec The program of the Ecole dee 
Cadres was based originally on the philosophy of the 
National Hevolutlon as expressed by Marshal P^tain„ Courses 
were designed to give the students an*^obJective understanding^ 
of the causes for the downfall of France and of the sociological 
problems resulting from the defeat* 

Ih 1942, v/hen Laval ajssumed control of youth movements, 
the pretense at objectivity in leadership training was abandoned 
for a more frankly totalitarian outlook* The ecoles des cadres 


COMFIDEIITIAL 

















« 27 


CONFIDENTIAL 


were placed under control of collaborationists, and the 

training was revised to indoctrinate prospective leaders 

with pro-German ideas and to give them the practical and 

athletic training required by the Vichy Government» A new 

national school was founded by Vichy in 1942 and in 1943 the 
/ 

Ecole dee Cadres at Uriage was aboilshed« 

3. Chan tiers de la Jeunesse . The Chantiers de la Jeunease 
were formed in 1940 in France, Algeria, and the colonies as 

a compulsory national service for youths of military agCe 
Unlike other groups, the Chantiers with their special cadres 
were under the Ministry of Labor, and were subsequently an 
important source of labor for Germanyo The labor drafts 
however, took heavy toll ,of the trained leaders of the 
Chantiers . leaving the groups without fina collaborationist 
control. Since the Chantiers included members of doubtful 
loyalty to Germany, the organization was suppressed in 1944. 

4. Compagnons de France . There was less military emphasis 
in the second of the two main organizations created by the 

Vichy Government. The Compagnons de France , a voluntary group for 
youths under twenty, was created in 19d0 to supplement the ‘ 
scout movements. Its members pledged themselves to learn 
and fulfill their civic responsibilities in the reconstruction 
of France by participation in public welfare works. The 
Compagnons were a.lso appropriate to the Vichy scheme for 


CONFIDENTIAL 

















CQNFIDEI'ITIAL 


enoouracing practical and technical aKilla, since they hal 
a well developed plan for technical tralnlne and pre-apprentice-^ 
ship. One of their main functions was to spread the doctrines 
of the National Revolution among the persons they met in the 
course of their v/ork. During 1943^ however, conflict developed 
between the Laval Governnent and the Compapnons . who since 
the days 'Of Marshal Piltain had tended to be anti-German and 
pro-Cathollc. Because of growing dissension, the movement 
was formally dissolved in 1944, but has apparently continued 
to function and has gained respect among French youth for 
its independent attitude. 

Organizations . Expansion of religious 
02*gan izations has been discouraged by Vichy. Since the 
Catholic clergy have shown disapproval of the Vichy’ 
educational policy, the government has "been reluctant to 
allow them too much control of youth groups. Furthermore, 
it is known that the Jesuits have exercised sjnti-German 
influence in the Association Cathollciue de la Jeunesse, and 
that the Jeunesee Ouvriere Catholique (J.O.Gc), one of the 
most developed of Catholic youth groups, has tended to be 
pro-British. 

^olltiical Groups . None of the former political youth ' 
groups is recognized by the Vichy government. However, the 
totalitarian political organizations in Ixtth North and South 
Zones have subsidiary groups for young people. Modelled on 

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- * CONFIDSITTIAL 

the Crerman example, they emphasize physical training and 
military Torniatlone, and sometimes advocate brutal 
disciplinary methods for recalcitrant citizens in the manner 
of the Nazi youth groups» • 

student Associations . All Independent student political 
associations, formerly freely constituted in the universities, 
have been forbidden by Vichy*, Instead, a corporation was 
formed in 1943, xuiifj'ing all Catholic, Protestant, and State 
student bodies* The corporation, led by collaborationists, 
represents a further attempt by the Vichy' government to 
control the opinion of university students who, because of 
their superior information, are Inclined to be more skeptical 
of the regime than younger students* 

8* Forces Unies de la Jeunesse *, In spite of the efforts 
of the Vichy Government to rally French youth for collabora¬ 
tion, the various resistance movements In France have organized 
their own youth sections, and united then in 1943 ,into a body 
known as the Forces Unies de la Jeunesse (FUJ)* In addition 
to nev/ formations, the FUJ include the anti-collaborationist 
membership of the Catholic organizations * Some of the leaders 
formerly associated with the Ecole Hationale dea Cadres are 
also known to have Joined the resistance youth movement. 


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